Diabetes – Wikipedia

04.06.2025
About Diabetes
54 min read

Group of metabolic points

Medical scenario

Diabetes mellitus
A hollow circle with a thick blue border and a clear centre
Widespread blue circle picture for diabetes[1]
Pronunciation
Specialty Endocrinology
Symptoms Frequent urination, increased thirst, increased hunger[2]
Complications Diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, heart disease, stroke, pain/pins and needles in hands and/or feet, chronic kidney failure, foot ulcers, cognitive impairment, gastroparesis[2][3][4][5]
Risk factors Form 1: Family history[6]
Form 2: Obesity, lack of practice, genetics[2][7]
Diagnostic method Extreme blood sugar[2]
Treatment Healthy diet, physical exercise[2]
Medication Insulin, anti-diabetic medication like metformin[2][8][9]
Frequency 463 million (8.8%)[10]
Deaths 4.2 million (2019)[10]

Diabetes mellitus, typically known as diabetes, is a bunch of metabolic disorders characterised by a high blood sugar diploma over a protracted time interval.[11] Indicators usually embody frequent urination, increased thirst and increased appetite.[2] If left untreated, diabetes may trigger many health complications.[2] Acute issues can embody diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, or lack of life.[3] Important long-term issues embody cardiovascular disease, stroke, chronic kidney disease, foot ulcers, damage to the nerves, damage to the eyes and cognitive impairment.[2][5]

Diabetes is due to each the pancreas not producing ample insulin, or the cells of the physique not responding appropriately to the insulin produced.[12] There are three main sorts of diabetes mellitus:[2]

  • Type 1 diabetes outcomes from failure of the pancreas to produce ample insulin on account of lack of beta cells.[2] This sort was beforehand generally known as “insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus” or “juvenile diabetes”.[2] The shortage of beta cells is attributable to an autoimmune response.[13] The explanation for this autoimmune response is unknown.[2]
  • Type 2 diabetes begins with insulin resistance, a scenario by way of which cells fail to reply insulin appropriately.[2] As a result of the sickness progresses, an absence of insulin may also develop.[14] This sort was beforehand generally known as “non insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus” or “adult-onset diabetes”.[2] The most common set off is a mixture of excessive body weight and insufficient exercise.[2]
  • Gestational diabetes is the third main kind, and occurs when pregnant women with out a earlier historic previous of diabetes develop extreme blood sugar ranges.[2]

Form 1 diabetes ought to be managed with insulin injections.[2] Prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes contains sustaining a healthy diet, frequent physical exercise, a conventional physique weight, and avoiding use of tobacco.[2] Form 2 diabetes may be dealt with with oral antidiabetic medications, with or with out insulin.[15] Administration of blood pressure and sustaining right foot and eye care are obligatory for people with the sickness.[2] Insulin and some oral medicines may trigger low blood sugar (hypoglycemia).[16] Weight loss surgery in these with obesity is often an environment friendly measure in these with type 2 diabetes.[17] Gestational diabetes usually resolves after the start of the kid.[18]

As of 2019, an estimated 463 million people had diabetes worldwide (8.8% of the grownup inhabitants), with type 2 diabetes making up about 90% of the circumstances.[10] Costs are associated in males and females.[19] Developments counsel that costs will proceed to rise.[10] Diabetes on the very least doubles a person’s hazard of early lack of life.[2] In 2019, diabetes resulted in roughly 4.2 million deaths.[10] It is the seventh predominant clarification for lack of life globally.[20][21] The worldwide economic cost of diabetes-related nicely being expenditure in 2017 was estimated at US$727 billion.[10] Within the USA, diabetes worth virtually US$327 billion in 2017.[22] Widespread medical expenditures amongst people with diabetes are about 2.3 cases better.[23]

Indicators and indicators[edit]

Overview of in all probability an important indicators of diabetes

The standard indicators of untreated diabetes are unintended weight loss, polyuria (elevated urination), polydipsia (elevated thirst), and polyphagia (elevated hunger).[24] Indicators may develop shortly (weeks or months) in type 1 diabetes, whereas they usually develop relatively extra slowly and may be refined or absent in type 2 diabetes.[25]

A variety of completely different indicators and indicators can mark the onset of diabetes although they’re not specific to the sickness. Together with the acknowledged indicators listed above, they embody blurred vision, headache, fatigue, gradual healing of cuts, and itchy skin. Prolonged extreme blood glucose may trigger glucose absorption throughout the lens of the eye, which leads to changes in its kind, resulting in vision changes. Prolonged-term imaginative and prescient loss may even be attributable to diabetic retinopathy. Varied skin rashes which will occur in diabetes are collectively known as diabetic dermadromes.[26]

Diabetic emergencies[edit]

People with diabetes (usually nonetheless not utterly in type 1 diabetes) may also experience diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), a metabolic disturbance characterised by nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain, the odor of acetone on the breath, deep respiratory known as Kussmaul breathing, and in excessive circumstances a decreased diploma of consciousness. DKA requires emergency treatment in hospital.[27] A rarer nonetheless further dangerous scenario is hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS), which is further widespread in type 2 diabetes and is particularly the outcomes of dehydration attributable to extreme blood sugars.[27]

Treatment-related low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) is widespread in people with type 1 and as well as type 2 diabetes counting on the drugs getting used. Most circumstances are delicate and shouldn’t thought-about medical emergencies. Outcomes can fluctuate from feelings of unease, sweating, trembling, and elevated urge for meals in delicate circumstances to further crucial outcomes just like confusion, changes in habits just like aggressiveness, seizures, unconsciousness, and sometimes eternal brain damage or death in excessive circumstances.[28][29] Rapid breathing, sweating, and chilly, pale pores and pores and skin are attribute of low blood sugar nonetheless not definitive.[30] Mild to common circumstances are self-treated by consuming or ingesting one factor extreme in shortly absorbed carbohydrates. Excessive circumstances may end up in unconsciousness and ought to be dealt with with intravenous glucose or injections with glucagon.[31]

Issues[edit]

Retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy are potential issues of diabetes

All sorts of diabetes improve the hazard of long-term issues. These normally develop after a number of years (10–20) nonetheless can be the primary symptom in people who have in some other case not acquired a prognosis sooner than that time.[32]

The primary long-term issues relate to wreck to blood vessels. Diabetes doubles the hazard of cardiovascular disease[33] and about 75% of deaths in people with diabetes are on account of coronary artery disease.[34] Completely different macrovascular diseases embody stroke, and peripheral artery disease.[35] These issues are moreover a strong hazard challenge for excessive COVID-19 illness.[36]

The primary issues of diabetes on account of harm in small blood vessels embody harm to the eyes, kidneys, and nerves.[37] Harm to the eyes, known as diabetic retinopathy, is attributable to harm to the blood vessels throughout the retina of the eye, and will find yourself in gradual vision loss and eventual blindness.[37] Diabetes moreover will enhance the hazard of getting glaucoma, cataracts, and completely different eye points. It is endorsed that people with diabetes go to an eye doctor yearly.[38] Harm to the kidneys, known as diabetic nephropathy, may end up in tissue scarring, urine protein loss, and at last chronic kidney disease, typically requiring dialysis or kidney transplantation.[37] Harm to the nerves of the physique, known as diabetic neuropathy, is the most common complication of diabetes.[37] The indicators can embody numbness, tingling, sudomotor dysfunction, ache, and altered ache sensation, which can lead to harm to the pores and pores and skin. Diabetes-related foot problems (just like diabetic foot ulcers) may occur, and may be powerful to take care of, generally requiring amputation. Furthermore, proximal diabetic neuropathy causes painful muscle atrophy and weakness.

There is a hyperlink between cognitive deficit and diabetes. As compared with these with out diabetes, these with the sickness have a 1.2 to 1.5-fold higher worth of decline in cognitive function.[39] Having diabetes, significantly when on insulin, will enhance the hazard of falls in older people.[40]

Comparability of type 1 and a few diabetes[41]
Attribute Form 1 diabetes Form 2 diabetes
Onset Sudden Gradual
Age at onset Principally in kids Principally in adults
Physique measurement Skinny or common[42] Usually obese
Ketoacidosis Widespread Unusual
Autoantibodies Typically present Absent
Endogenous insulin Low or absent Common, decreased
or elevated
Heritability 0.69 to 0.88[43][44][45] 0.47 to 0.77[46]
Prevalence

(age standardized)

<2 per 1,000[47][48] ~6% (males), ~5% (women)[49]

Diabetes mellitus is classed into six lessons: type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, hybrid sorts of diabetes, hyperglycemia first detected all through being pregnant, “unclassified diabetes”, and “completely different specific varieties”.[50] The “hybrid sorts of diabetes” incorporates slowly evolving, immune-mediated diabetes of adults and ketosis-prone type 2 diabetes. The “hyperglycemia first detected all through being pregnant” incorporates gestational diabetes mellitus and diabetes mellitus in being pregnant (type 1 or type 2 diabetes first recognized all through being pregnant). The “completely different specific varieties” are a set of some dozen specific individual causes. Diabetes is a further variable sickness than as quickly as thought and people might need mixtures of sorts.[51] The time interval “diabetes”, with out qualification, refers to diabetes mellitus.[52]

Form 1[edit]

Form 1 diabetes is characterised by lack of the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreatic islets, leading to insulin deficiency. This sort may be further labeled as immune-mediated or idiopathic. Almost all of type 1 diabetes is of an immune-mediated nature, by way of which a T cell-mediated autoimmune assault ends in the dearth of beta cells and thus insulin.[53] It causes roughly 10% of diabetes mellitus circumstances in North America and Europe. Most affected individuals are in some other case healthful and of a healthful weight when onset occurs. Sensitivity and responsiveness to insulin are sometimes common, significantly throughout the early ranges. Although it has been generally known as “juvenile diabetes” due to the frequent onset in kids, the overwhelming majority of individuals dwelling with type 1 diabetes are literally adults.[6]

“Brittle” diabetes, usually generally known as unstable diabetes or labile diabetes, is a time interval that was traditionally used to clarify the dramatic and recurrent swings in glucose ranges, usually occurring for no apparent trigger in insulin-dependent diabetes. This time interval, however, has no biologic basis and should not be used.[54] Nonetheless, type 1 diabetes may be accompanied by irregular and unpredictable extreme blood sugar ranges, and the potential for diabetic ketoacidosis or crucial low blood sugar ranges. Completely different issues embody an impaired counterregulatory response to low blood sugar, an an infection, gastroparesis (which leads to erratic absorption of dietary carbohydrates), and endocrinopathies (e.g., Addison’s disease).[54] These phenomena are believed to occur no further ceaselessly than in 1% to 2% of people with type 1 diabetes.[55]

Autoimmune assault in type 1 diabetes.

Form 1 diabetes is partly inherited, with numerous genes, along with certain HLA genotypes, acknowledged to have an effect on the hazard of diabetes. In genetically weak people, the onset of diabetes may be triggered by numerous environmental factors,[56] just like a viral infection or meals routine. A variety of viruses have been implicated, nonetheless to this point there’s no stringent proof to help this hypothesis in folks.[56][57] Amongst dietary components, data counsel that gliadin (a protein present in gluten) may play a job throughout the enchancment of type 1 diabetes, nonetheless the mechanism is simply not completely understood.[58][59]

Form 1 diabetes can occur at any age, and a giant proportion is recognized all through maturity. Latent autoimmune diabetes of adults (LADA) is the diagnostic time interval utilized when type 1 diabetes develops in adults; it has a slower onset than the similar scenario in kids. Given this distinction, some use the unofficial time interval “type 1.5 diabetes” for this case. Adults with LADA are ceaselessly initially misdiagnosed as having type 2 diabetes, based on age pretty than a set off.[60]

Form 2[edit]

Decreased insulin secretion and absorption ends in extreme glucose content material materials throughout the blood.

Form 2 diabetes is characterised by insulin resistance, which will be blended with comparatively diminished insulin secretion.[12] The defective responsiveness of physique tissues to insulin is believed to include the insulin receptor. Nonetheless, the actual defects shouldn’t acknowledged. Diabetes mellitus circumstances on account of a acknowledged defect are labeled individually. Form 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes mellitus.[2] Many people with type 2 diabetes have proof of prediabetes (impaired fasting glucose and/or impaired glucose tolerance) sooner than meeting the requirements for type 2 diabetes.[61] The event of prediabetes to overt type 2 diabetes may be slowed or reversed by life-style changes or medications that improve insulin sensitivity or cut back the liver’s glucose production.[62]

Form 2 diabetes is totally on account of life-style components and genetics.[63] Varied life-style components are acknowledged to be essential to the occasion of type 2 diabetes, along with obesity (outlined by a body mass index of higher than 30), lack of physical activity, poor diet, stress, and urbanization.[41] Additional physique fat is said to 30% of circumstances in people of Chinese language language and Japanese descent, 60–80% of circumstances in these of European and African descent, and 100% of Pima Indians and Pacific Islanders.[12] Even people who shouldn’t chubby might need a extreme waist–hip ratio.[12]

Dietary components just like sugar-sweetened drinks are associated to an elevated hazard.[64][65] The form of fats throughout the meals routine will be obligatory, with saturated fat and trans fats rising the hazard and polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat lowering the hazard.[63] Consuming white rice excessively may improve the hazard of diabetes, significantly in Chinese language language and Japanese people.[66] Lack of bodily train may improve the hazard of diabetes in some people.[67]

Adverse childhood experiences, along with abuse, neglect, and household difficulties, improve the likelihood of type 2 diabetes later in life by 32%, with neglect having the strongest influence.[68]

Antipsychotic medication negative effects (significantly metabolic abnormalities, dyslipidemia and weight obtain) and unhealthy life (along with poor meals routine and decreased physical activity), are potential hazard components.[69]

Gestational diabetes[edit]

Gestational diabetes resembles type 2 diabetes in numerous respects, involving a mixture of comparatively inadequate insulin secretion and responsiveness. It occurs in about 2–10% of all pregnancies and can improve or disappear after provide.[70] It is endorsed that every one pregnant women get examined starting spherical 24–28 weeks gestation.[71] It is most often recognized throughout the second or third trimester as a result of rise in insulin-antagonist hormone ranges that occurs proper now.[71] Nonetheless, after being pregnant roughly 5–10% of women with gestational diabetes are found to have one different kind of diabetes, largely type 2.[70] Gestational diabetes is completely treatable, nonetheless requires cautious medical supervision all by way of the being pregnant. Administration may embody dietary changes, blood glucose monitoring, and in some circumstances, insulin may be required.[72]

Though it may very well be transient, untreated gestational diabetes can harm the nicely being of the fetus or mother. Risks to the kid embody macrosomia (extreme starting weight), congenital heart and central nervous system abnormalities, and skeletal muscle malformations. Elevated ranges of insulin in a fetus’s blood may inhibit fetal surfactant manufacturing and set off infant respiratory distress syndrome. A high blood bilirubin level may end result from red blood cell destruction. In excessive circumstances, perinatal lack of life may occur, largely due to poor placental perfusion on account of vascular impairment. Labor induction may be indicated with decreased placental function. A caesarean section may be carried out if there could also be marked fetal distress[73] or an elevated hazard of injury associated to macrosomia, just like shoulder dystocia.[74]

Completely different varieties[edit]

Maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY) is a unusual autosomal dominant inherited kind of diabetes, on account of thought of one among numerous single-gene mutations inflicting defects in insulin manufacturing.[75] It is significantly a lot much less widespread than the three main varieties, constituting 1–2% of all circumstances. The title of this sickness refers to early hypotheses as to its nature. Being on account of a defective gene, this sickness varies in age at presentation and in severity based mostly on the actual gene defect; thus there are on the very least 13 subtypes of MODY. People with MODY usually can administration it with out using insulin.[76]

Some circumstances of diabetes are attributable to the physique’s tissue receptors not responding to insulin (even when insulin ranges are common, which is what separates it from type 2 diabetes); this sort may very well be very uncommon. Genetic mutations (autosomal or mitochondrial) may end up in defects in beta cell function. Irregular insulin movement may also have been genetically determined in some circumstances. Any sickness that causes in depth harm to the pancreas may lead to diabetes (as an example, chronic pancreatitis and cystic fibrosis). Diseases associated to excessive secretion of insulin-antagonistic hormones may trigger diabetes (which is commonly resolved as quickly because the hormone further is eradicated). Many treatment impair insulin secretion and some toxins harm pancreatic beta cells, whereas others improve insulin resistance (significantly glucocorticoids which can provoke “steroid diabetes“). The ICD-10 (1992) diagnostic entity, malnutrition-related diabetes mellitus (ICD-10 code E12), was deprecated by the World Health Organization (WHO) when the current taxonomy was launched in 1999.[77]
Another kind of diabetes that people may develop is double diabetes. That’s when a form 1 diabetic turns into insulin resistant, the hallmark for type 2 diabetes or has a family historic previous for type 2 diabetes.[78] It was first present in 1990 or 1991.

The subsequent is a list of points which is able to improve the hazard of diabetes:[79]

Pathophysiology[edit]

The fluctuation of blood sugar (purple) and the sugar-lowering hormone insulin (blue) in folks in the midst of the course of a day with three meals. One among many outcomes of a sugar-rich vs a starch-rich meal is highlighted.

Mechanism of insulin launch in common pancreatic beta cells. Insulin manufacturing is form of mounted contained in the beta cells. Its launch is triggered by meals, primarily meals containing absorbable glucose.

Insulin is the principal hormone that regulates the uptake of glucose from the blood into most cells of the physique, significantly liver, adipose tissue and muscle, apart from clear muscle, by way of which insulin acts by the use of the IGF-1.[citation needed] Subsequently, deficiency of insulin or the insensitivity of its receptors play a central operate in all sorts of diabetes mellitus.[81]

The physique obtains glucose from three main sources: the intestinal absorption of meals; the breakdown of glycogen (glycogenolysis), the storage kind of glucose found throughout the liver; and gluconeogenesis, the know-how of glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates throughout the physique.[82] Insulin performs a necessary operate in regulating glucose ranges throughout the physique. Insulin can inhibit the breakdown of glycogen or the strategy of gluconeogenesis, it could stimulate the transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells, and it could stimulate the storage of glucose inside the kind of glycogen.[82]

Insulin is launched into the blood by beta cells (β-cells), found throughout the islets of Langerhans throughout the pancreas, in response to rising ranges of blood glucose, normally after consuming. Insulin is utilized by about two-thirds of the physique’s cells to absorb glucose from the blood for use as gasoline, for conversion to completely different wished molecules, or for storage. Lower glucose ranges finish in decreased insulin launch from the beta cells and throughout the breakdown of glycogen to glucose. This course of is particularly managed by the hormone glucagon, which acts throughout the reverse technique to insulin.[83]

If the amount of insulin accessible is insufficient, or if cells reply poorly to the outcomes of insulin (insulin resistance), or if the insulin itself is flawed, then glucose is simply not absorbed appropriately by the physique cells that require it, and is not saved appropriately throughout the liver and muscle teams. The web influence is persistently extreme ranges of blood glucose, poor protein synthesis, and completely different metabolic derangements, just like metabolic acidosis in circumstances of full insulin deficiency.[82]

When glucose focus throughout the blood stays extreme over time, the kidneys attain a threshold of reabsorption, and the physique excretes glucose throughout the urine (glycosuria).[84] This can enhance the osmotic pressure of the urine and inhibits reabsorption of water by the kidney, resulting in elevated urine manufacturing (polyuria) and elevated fluid loss. Misplaced blood amount is modified osmotically from water in physique cells and completely different physique compartments, inflicting dehydration and elevated thirst (polydipsia).[82] In addition to, intracellular glucose deficiency stimulates urge for meals leading to excessive meals consumption (polyphagia).[85]

Prognosis[edit]

Diabetes mellitus is recognized with a check out for the glucose content material materials throughout the blood, and is recognized by demonstrating any one among many following:[77]

  • Fasting plasma glucose level ≥ 7.0 mmol/L (126 mg/dL). For this check out, blood is taken after a interval of fasting, i.e. throughout the morning sooner than breakfast, after the affected individual had sufficient time to fast in a single day.
  • Plasma glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) two hours after a 75 gram oral glucose load as in a glucose tolerance test (OGTT)
  • Indicators of extreme blood sugar and plasma glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) each whereas fasting or not fasting
  • Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C) ≥ 48 mmol/mol (≥ 6.5 DCCT %).[86]

A optimistic end result, throughout the absence of unequivocal extreme blood sugar, must be confirmed by a repeat of any of the above methods on a singular day. It is preferable to measure a fasting glucose diploma as a result of comfort of measurement and the considerable time dedication of formal glucose tolerance testing, which takes two hours to complete and offers no prognostic profit over the fasting check out.[89] Primarily based on the current definition, two fasting glucose measurements above 7.0 mmol/L (126 mg/dL) is taken into consideration diagnostic for diabetes mellitus.

Per the WHO, people with fasting glucose ranges from 6.1 to 6.9 mmol/L (110 to 125 mg/dL) are thought-about to have impaired fasting glucose.[90] People with plasma glucose at or above 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL), nonetheless not over 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL), two hours after a 75 gram oral glucose load are thought-about to have impaired glucose tolerance. Of these two prediabetic states, the latter particularly is a severe hazard challenge for growth to full-blown diabetes mellitus, along with coronary heart issues.[91] The American Diabetes Association (ADA) since 2003 makes use of a barely utterly completely different fluctuate for impaired fasting glucose of 5.6 to 6.9 mmol/L (100 to 125 mg/dL).[92]

Glycated hemoglobin is more healthy than fasting glucose for determining risks of coronary heart issues and lack of life from any set off.[93]

Prevention[edit]

There’s no acknowledged preventive measure for type 1 diabetes.[2] Form 2 diabetes—which accounts for 85–90% of all circumstances worldwide—can usually be prevented or delayed[94] by sustaining a normal body weight, taking part in bodily train, and consuming a nutritious weight loss program.[2] Elevated ranges of bodily train (better than 90 minutes per day) cut back the hazard of diabetes by 28%.[95] Dietary changes acknowledged to be environment friendly in serving to to forestall diabetes embody sustaining a meals routine rich in whole grains and fiber, and choosing good fats, such as a result of the polyunsaturated fats current in nuts, vegetable oils, and fish.[96] Limiting sugary drinks and consuming a lot much less purple meat and completely different sources of saturated fat can also help cease diabetes.[96] Tobacco smoking will be associated to an elevated hazard of diabetes and its issues, so smoking cessation may be an obligatory security measure as successfully.[97]

The connection between type 2 diabetes and the first modifiable hazard components (further weight, unhealthy meals routine, bodily inactivity and tobacco use) is comparable in all areas of the world. There could also be rising proof that the underlying determinants of diabetes are a reflection of an important forces driving social, monetary and cultural change: globalization, urbanization, inhabitants ageing, and the ultimate health policy environment.[98]

Administration[edit]

Diabetes administration concentrates on retaining blood sugar ranges as close to common, with out inflicting low blood sugar. This can usually be achieved with dietary changes,[99] practice, weight discount, and use of relevant medicines (insulin, oral medicines).

Learning regarding the sickness and actively collaborating throughout the treatment is critical, since issues are far a lot much less widespread and fewer excessive in people who’ve well-managed blood sugar ranges.[100][101] Per the American College of Physicians, the target of treatment is an HbA1C diploma of 7-8%.[102] Consideration will be paid to completely different nicely being points which is able to velocity up the unfavorable outcomes of diabetes. These embody smoking, high blood pressure, metabolic syndrome obesity, and lack of ordinary exercise.[103] Specialized footwear is broadly used to cut back the hazard of ulcers in at-risk diabetic toes although proof for the efficacy of this stays equivocal.[104]

The concepts of managing diabetes may be associated all through the ultimate inhabitants with diabetes, however some points may ought to be addressed when tailoring intervention, primarily particularly populations.

Considering these with excessive mental illness, the efficacy of type 2 diabetes self administration interventions stays to be poorly explored, with insufficient scientific proof to level out whether or not or not these interventions have associated outcomes to those observed on the entire inhabitants.[105]

Life-style[edit]

People with diabetes can revenue from coaching regarding the sickness and treatment, dietary changes, and practice, with the target of retaining every short-term and long-term blood glucose ranges within acceptable bounds. In addition to, given the associated better risks of coronary heart issues, life-style modifications are actually useful to handle blood pressure.[106][107]

Weight loss can cease growth from prediabetes to diabetes type 2, decrease the hazard of coronary heart issues, or finish in a partial remission in people with diabetes.[108][109] No single dietary pattern is best for all people with diabetes.[110] Healthful dietary patterns, such as a result of the Mediterranean diet, low-carbohydrate diet, or DASH diet, are generally actually useful, although proof does not help one over the others.[108][109] Primarily based on the ADA, “reducing complete carbohydrate consumption for folks with diabetes has demonstrated in all probability probably the most proof for enhancing glycemia”, and for folks with type 2 diabetes who cannot meet the glycemic targets or the place reducing anti-glycemic medicines is a priority, low or very-low carbohydrate diets are a viable technique.[109] For chubby people with type 2 diabetes, any meals routine that achieves weight discount is environment friendly.[110][111]

Medicines[edit]

Glucose administration[edit]

Most medicines used to take care of diabetes act by lowering blood sugar levels by the use of utterly completely different mechanisms. There could also be broad consensus that when people with diabetes protect tight glucose administration – retaining the glucose ranges of their blood inside common ranges – they experience fewer issues, just like kidney problems or eye problems.[112][113] There could also be however debate as as as to whether that’s relevant and cost effective for people later in life in whom the hazard of hypoglycemia may be further necessary.[114]

There are a number of assorted programs of anti-diabetic medicines. Form 1 diabetes requires treatment with insulin, ideally using a “basal bolus” routine that almost all rigorously matches common insulin launch: long-acting insulin for the basal rate and short-acting insulin with meals.[115] Form 2 diabetes is normally dealt with with drugs that is taken by mouth (e.g. metformin) although some lastly require injectable treatment with insulin or GLP-1 agonists.[116]

Metformin is normally actually useful as a first-line treatment for type 2 diabetes, as there could also be good proof that it decreases mortality.[8] It actually works by lowering the liver’s manufacturing of glucose.[117] A variety of completely different groups of treatment, principally given by mouth, may also decrease blood sugar in type 2 diabetes. These embody brokers that improve insulin launch (sulfonylureas), brokers that decrease absorption of sugar from the intestines (acarbose), brokers that inhibit the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) that inactivates incretins just like GLP-1 and GIP (sitagliptin), brokers that make the physique further delicate to insulin (thiazolidinedione) and brokers that improve the excretion of glucose throughout the urine (SGLT2 inhibitors).[117] When insulin is utilized in type 2 diabetes, a long-acting formulation is commonly added initially, whereas persevering with oral medicines.[8] Doses of insulin are then elevated until glucose targets are reached.[8][118]

Blood pressure lowering[edit]

Cardiovascular disease is a crucial complication associated to diabetes, and many worldwide pointers recommend blood pressure treatment targets which will be lower than 140/90 mmHg for people with diabetes.[119] Nonetheless, there could also be solely restricted proof referring to what the lower targets must be. A 2016 systematic analysis found potential damage to treating to targets lower than 140 mmHg,[120] and a subsequent systematic analysis in 2019 found no proof of additional revenue from blood pressure lowering to between 130 – 140mmHg, although there was an elevated hazard of opposed events.[121]

2015 American Diabetes Affiliation solutions are that people with diabetes and albuminuria must acquire an inhibitor of the renin-angiotensin system to cut back the risks of growth to end-stage renal sickness, cardiovascular events, and lack of life.[122] There could also be some proof that angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) are superior to completely different inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system just like angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs),[123] or aliskiren in stopping coronary heart issues.[124] Although a more recent analysis found associated outcomes of ACEIs and ARBs on predominant cardiovascular and renal outcomes.[125] There’s no proof that combining ACEIs and ARBs gives further benefits.[125]

Aspirin[edit]

Utilizing aspirin to forestall coronary heart issues in diabetes is controversial.[122] Aspirin is admittedly useful by some in people at extreme hazard of coronary heart issues, however routine use of aspirin has not been found to reinforce outcomes in uncomplicated diabetes.[126] 2015 American Diabetes Affiliation solutions for aspirin use (based on expert consensus or scientific experience) are that low-dose aspirin use is affordable in adults with diabetes who’re at intermediate hazard of coronary heart issues (10-year coronary heart issues hazard, 5–10%).[122] Nationwide pointers for England and Wales by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommend in the direction of the utilization of aspirin in people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes who should not have confirmed coronary heart issues.[115][116]

Surgical process[edit]

Weight loss surgery in these with obesity and sort 2 diabetes is normally an environment friendly measure.[17] Many are ready to protect common blood sugar ranges with little or no medicines following surgical process[127] and long-term mortality is decreased.[128] There could also be, however, a short-term mortality hazard of decrease than 1% from the surgical process.[129] The body mass index cutoffs for when surgical process is appropriate shouldn’t however clear.[128] It is endorsed that this characteristic be thought-about in these which can be unable to get every their weight and blood sugar beneath administration.[130]

A pancreas transplant is usually thought-about for people with type 1 diabetes who’ve excessive issues of their sickness, along with end stage kidney disease requiring kidney transplantation.[131]

Self-management and help[edit]

In worldwide areas using a general practitioner system, just like the UK, care may occur primarily exterior hospitals, with hospital-based specialist care used solely in case of issues, powerful blood sugar administration, or evaluation initiatives. In several circumstances, regular practitioners and specialists share care in a crew technique. Home telehealth help may be an environment friendly administration strategy.[132]

Utilizing technology to ship tutorial purposes for adults with type 2 diabetes comprises computer-based self-management interventions to collect for tailored responses to facilitate self-management.[133] There’s no sufficient proof to help outcomes on cholesterol, blood pressure, behavioral change (just like physical activity ranges and dietary), depression, weight and health-related quality of life, nor in numerous natural, cognitive or emotional outcomes.[133]

Epidemiology[edit]

Costs of diabetes worldwide in 2014. The worldwide prevalence was 9.2%.

Mortality worth of diabetes worldwide in 2012 per million inhabitants

  28–91

  92–114

  115–141

  142–163

  164–184

  185–209

  210–247

  248–309

  310–404

  405–1879

In 2017, 425 million people had diabetes worldwide,[134] up from an estimated 382 million people in 2013[135] and from 108 million in 1980.[136] Accounting for the shifting age development of the worldwide inhabitants, the prevalence of diabetes is 8.8% amongst adults, virtually double the velocity of 4.7% in 1980.[134][136] Form 2 makes up about 90% of the circumstances.[19][41] Some data level out costs are roughly equal in males and females,[19] nonetheless male further in diabetes has been found in numerous populations with better type 2 incidence, in all probability on account of sex-related variations in insulin sensitivity, penalties of weight issues and regional physique fat deposition, and completely different contributing components just like hypertension, tobacco smoking, and alcohol consumption.[137][138]

The WHO estimates that diabetes resulted in 1.5 million deaths in 2012, making it the eighth predominant clarification for lack of life.[15][136] Nonetheless one different 2.2 million deaths worldwide had been attributable to extreme blood glucose and the elevated risks of coronary heart issues and completely different associated issues (e.g. kidney failure), which commonly lead to premature lack of life and are generally listed as a result of the underlying set off on lack of life certificates pretty than diabetes.[136][139] As an example, in 2017, the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) estimated that diabetes resulted in 4.0 million deaths worldwide,[134] using modeling to estimate the entire number of deaths that might presumably be immediately or circuitously attributed to diabetes.[134]

Diabetes occurs all by way of the world nonetheless is further widespread (significantly type 2) in further developed worldwide areas. The perfect improve in costs has however been seen in low- and middle-income worldwide areas,[136] the place better than 80% of diabetic deaths occur.[140] The quickest prevalence improve is predicted to occur in Asia and Africa, the place most people with diabetes will most probably reside in 2030.[141] The rise in costs in creating worldwide areas follows the sample of urbanization and life-style changes, along with an increasing number of sedentary life, a lot much less bodily demanding work and the worldwide weight loss program transition, marked by elevated consumption of meals which will be extreme energy-dense nonetheless nutrient-poor (usually extreme in sugar and saturated fats, commonly known as the “Western-style” meals routine).[136][141] The worldwide number of diabetes circumstances may improve by 48% between 2017 and 2045.[134]

Historic previous[edit]

Diabetes was one among many first diseases described,[142] with an Egyptian manuscript from c. 1500 BCE mentioning “too good emptying of the urine.”[143] The Ebers papyrus contains a suggestion for a drink to soak up such circumstances.[144] The first described circumstances are believed to have been type 1 diabetes.[143] Indian physicians throughout the same time acknowledged the sickness and labeled it as madhumeha or “honey urine”, noting the urine would entice ants.[143][144]

The time interval “diabetes” or “to maneuver by the use of” was first utilized in 230 BCE by the Greek Apollonius of Memphis.[143] The sickness was thought-about unusual in the midst of the time of the Roman empire, with Galen commenting he had solely seen two circumstances all through his career.[143] That’s in all probability due to the meals routine and life-style of the ancients, or on account of the scientific indicators had been observed in the midst of the superior stage of the sickness. Galen named the sickness “diarrhea of the urine” (diarrhea urinosa).[145]

The earliest surviving work with an in depth reference to diabetes is that of Aretaeus of Cappadocia (2nd or early third century CE). He described the indicators and the course of the sickness, which he attributed to the moisture and coldness, reflecting the beliefs of the “Pneumatic School“. He hypothesized a correlation between diabetes and completely different diseases, and he talked about differential prognosis from the snakebite, which moreover provokes excessive thirst. His work remained unknown throughout the West until 1552, when the first Latin model was revealed in Venice.[145]

Two sorts of diabetes had been acknowledged as separate conditions for the first time by the Indian physicians Sushruta and Charaka in 400–500 CE with one type being associated to youth and one different type with being chubby.[143] Environment friendly treatment was not developed until the early part of the 20 th century when Canadians Frederick Banting and Charles Herbert Best isolated and purified insulin in 1921 and 1922.[143] This was adopted by the occasion of the long-acting insulin NPH throughout the Nineteen Forties.[143]

Etymology[edit]

The phrase diabetes ( or ) comes from Latin diabētēs, which in flip comes from Ancient Greek διαβήτης (diabētēs), which precisely means “a passer by the use of; a siphon“.[146] Ancient Greek physician Aretaeus of Cappadocia (fl. 1st century CE) used that phrase, with the supposed which implies “excessive discharge of urine”, as a result of the title for the sickness.[147][148] Lastly, the phrase comes from Greek διαβαίνειν (diabainein), which implies “to maneuver by the use of,”[146] which consists of δια- (dia-), which implies “by the use of” and βαίνειν (bainein), which implies “to go”.[147] The phrase “diabetes” is first recorded in English, throughout the kind diabete, in a medical textual content material written spherical 1425.

The phrase mellitus ( or ) comes from the classical Latin phrase mellītus, which implies “mellite”[149] (i.e. sweetened with honey;[149] honey-sweet[150]). The Latin phrase comes from mell-, which comes from mel, which implies “honey”;[149][150] sweetness;[150] good issue,[150] and the suffix –ītus,[149] whose which implies is analogous as that of the English suffix “-ite”.[151] It was Thomas Willis who in 1675 added “mellitus” to the phrase “diabetes” as a designation for the sickness, when he seen the urine of a person with diabetes had a sweet type (glycosuria). This sweet type had been seen in urine by the normal Greeks, Chinese language language, Egyptians, Indians, and Persians.

Society and custom[edit]

The 1989 “St. Vincent Declaration“[152][153] was the outcomes of worldwide efforts to reinforce the care accorded to those with diabetes. Doing so is critical not solely relating to prime quality of life and life expectancy however as well as economically – payments on account of diabetes have been confirmed to be a severe drain on nicely being – and productivity-related property for healthcare methods and governments.

A variety of worldwide areas established further and fewer worthwhile nationwide diabetes programmes to reinforce treatment of the sickness.[154]

People with diabetes who’ve neuropathic indicators just like numbness or tingling in toes or arms are twice as extra more likely to be unemployed as these with out the indicators.[155]

In 2010, diabetes-related emergency room (ER) go to costs within the USA had been better amongst people from the underside income communities (526 per 10,000 inhabitants) than from the most effective income communities (236 per 10,000 inhabitants). Roughly 9.4% of diabetes-related ER visits had been for the uninsured.[156]

Naming[edit]

The time interval “type 1 diabetes” has modified numerous former phrases, along with childhood-onset diabetes, juvenile diabetes, and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Likewise, the time interval “type 2 diabetes” has modified numerous former phrases, along with adult-onset diabetes, obesity-related diabetes, and noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Previous these two varieties, there’s no agreed-upon customary nomenclature.[157]

Diabetes mellitus will be generally known as “sugar diabetes” to differentiate it from diabetes insipidus.[158]

Completely different animals[edit]

In animals, diabetes is generally encountered in canines and cats. Heart-aged animals are largely affected. Female canines are twice as extra more likely to be affected as males, whereas based mostly on some sources, male cats are further inclined than females. In every species, all breeds may be affected, nonetheless some small canine breeds are considerably extra more likely to develop diabetes, just like Miniature Poodles.[159]

Feline diabetes is strikingly similar to human type 2 diabetes. The Burmese, Russian Blue, Abyssinian, and Norwegian Forest cat breeds are at better hazard than completely different breeds. Chubby cats are moreover at better hazard.[160]

The indicators may relate to fluid loss and polyuria, nonetheless the course may also be insidious. Diabetic animals are further weak to infections. The long-term issues acknowledged in individuals are so much rarer in animals. The concepts of treatment (weight discount, oral antidiabetics, subcutaneous insulin) and administration of emergencies (e.g. ketoacidosis) are similar to these in folks.[159]

References[edit]

  1. ^ “Diabetes Blue Circle Symbol”. Worldwide Diabetes Federation. 17 March 2006. Archived from the original on 5 August 2007.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x “Diabetes Fact sheet N°312”. WHO. October 2013. Archived from the original on 26 August 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
  3. ^ a b Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM, Fisher JN (July 2009). “Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes”. Diabetes Care. 32 (7): 1335–1343. doi:10.2337/dc09-9032. PMC 2699725. PMID 19564476.
  4. ^ Krishnasamy S, Abell TL (July 2018). “Diabetic Gastroparesis: Principles and Current Trends in Management”. Diabetes Treatment. 9 (Suppl 1): 1–42. doi:10.1007/s13300-018-0454-9. PMC 6028327. PMID 29934758.
  5. ^ a b Saedi E, Gheini MR, Faiz F, Arami MA (September 2016). “Diabetes mellitus and cognitive impairments”. World Journal of Diabetes. 7 (17): 412–422. doi:10.4239/wjd.v7.i17.412. PMC 5027005. PMID 27660698.
  6. ^ a b Chiang JL, Kirkman MS, Laffel LM, Peters AL (July 2014). “Type 1 diabetes through the life span: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association”. Diabetes Care. 37 (7): 2034–2054. doi:10.2337/dc14-1140. PMC 5865481. PMID 24935775.
  7. ^ “Causes of Diabetes”. Nationwide Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. June 2014. Archived from the distinctive on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
  8. ^ a b c d Ripsin CM, Kang H, Metropolis RJ (January 2009). “Management of blood glucose in type 2 diabetes mellitus” (PDF). American Family Physician. 79 (1): 29–36. PMID 19145963. Archived (PDF) from the distinctive on 2013-05-05.
  9. ^ Brutsaert EF (February 2017). “Drug Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus”. MSDManuals.com. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
  10. ^ a b c d e f “IDF DIABETES ATLAS Ninth Edition 2019” (PDF). www.diabetesatlas.org. Retrieved 18 Would possibly 2020.
  11. ^ “About diabetes”. World Properly being Group. Archived from the original on 31 March 2014. Retrieved 4 April 2014.
  12. ^ a b c d Shoback DG, Gardner D, eds. (2011). “Chapter 17”. Greenspan’s basic & scientific endocrinology (ninth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 978-0-07-162243-1.
  13. ^ Norman A, Henry H (2015). Hormones. Elsevier. pp. 136–137. ISBN 9780123694447.
  14. ^ RSSDI textbook of diabetes mellitus (Revised 2nd ed.). Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers. 2012. p. 235. ISBN 978-93-5025-489-9. Archived from the distinctive on 14 October 2015.
  15. ^ a b “The top 10 causes of death Fact sheet N°310”. World Properly being Group. October 2013. Archived from the distinctive on 30 Would possibly 2017.
  16. ^ Rippe RS, Irwin JM, eds. (2010). Handbook of intensive care medicine (fifth ed.). Wolters Kluwer Properly being/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 549. ISBN 978-0-7817-9992-8.
  17. ^ a b Picot J, Jones J, Colquitt JL, Gospodarevskaya E, Loveman E, Baxter L, Clegg AJ (September 2009). “The clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of bariatric (weight loss) surgery for obesity: a systematic review and economic evaluation”. Properly being Know-how Analysis. 13 (41): 1–190, 215–357, iii–iv. doi:10.3310/hta13410. hdl:10536/DRO/DU:30064294. PMID 19726018.
  18. ^ Cash J (2014). Family Practice Guidelines (third ed.). Springer. p. 396. ISBN 978-0-8261-6875-7. Archived from the distinctive on 31 October 2015.
  19. ^ a b c Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, Lozano R, Michaud C, Ezzati M, et al. (December 2012). “Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010”. Lancet. 380 (9859): 2163–2196. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2. PMC 6350784. PMID 23245607.
  20. ^ “What is Diabetes?”. Amenities for Sickness Administration and Prevention. 11 March 2020. Retrieved 18 Would possibly 2020.
  21. ^ “The top 10 causes of death”. www.who.int. Retrieved 18 Would possibly 2020.
  22. ^ American Diabetes Affiliation (Would possibly 2018). “Economic Costs of Diabetes in the U.S. in 2017”. Diabetes Care. 41 (5): 917–928. doi:10.2337/dci18-0007. PMC 5911784. PMID 29567642.
  23. ^ “Deaths and Cost | Data & Statistics | Diabetes | CDC”. cdc.gov. 20 February 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
  24. ^ Cooke DW, Plotnick L (November 2008). “Form 1 diabetes mellitus in pediatrics”. Pediatrics in Overview. 29 (11): 374–84, quiz 385. doi:10.1542/pir.29-11-374. PMID 18977856. S2CID 20528207.
  25. ^ “WHO | Diabetes mellitus”. WHO. Archived from the original on June 11, 2004. Retrieved 2019-03-23.
  26. ^ Rockefeller JD (2015). Diabetes: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment and Prevention. ISBN 978-1-5146-0305-5.
  27. ^ a b Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM, Fisher JN (July 2009). “Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes”. Diabetes Care. 32 (7): 1335–1343. doi:10.2337/dc09-9032. PMC 2699725. PMID 19564476. Archived from the distinctive on 2016-06-25.
  28. ^ Kenny C (April 2014). “When hypoglycemia is not obvious: diagnosing and treating under-recognized and undisclosed hypoglycemia”. Essential Care Diabetes. 8 (1): 3–11. doi:10.1016/j.pcd.2013.09.002. PMID 24100231.
  29. ^ Verrotti A, Scaparrotta A, Olivieri C, Chiarelli F (December 2012). “Seizures and type 1 diabetes mellitus: current state of knowledge”. European Journal of Endocrinology. 167 (6): 749–758. doi:10.1530/EJE-12-0699. PMID 22956556.
  30. ^ “Symptoms of Low Blood Sugar”. WebMD. Archived from the distinctive on 18 June 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
  31. ^ “Glucagon–Injection side effects, medical uses, and drug interactions”. MedicineNet. Retrieved 2018-02-05.
  32. ^ “Diabetes – long-term effects”. betterhealth.vic.gov.au.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  33. ^ Sarwar N, Gao P, Seshasai SR, Gobin R, Kaptoge S, Di Angelantonio E, et al. (June 2010). “Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies”. Lancet. 375 (9733): 2215–2222. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9. PMC 2904878. PMID 20609967.
  34. ^ O’Gara PT, Kushner FG, Ascheim DD, Casey DE, Chung MK, de Lemos JA, et al. (January 2013). “2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines”. Circulation. 127 (4): e362–e425. doi:10.1161/CIR.0b013e3182742cf6. PMID 23247304.
  35. ^ Papatheodorou Okay, Banach M, Bekiari E, Rizzo M, Edmonds M (11 March 2018). “Complications of Diabetes 2017”. Journal of Diabetes Evaluation. 2018: 3086167. doi:10.1155/2018/3086167. PMC 5866895. PMID 29713648.
  36. ^ Kompaniyets L, Pennington AF, Goodman AB, Rosenblum HG, Belay B, Ko JY, et al. (July 2021). “Underlying Medical Conditions and Severe Illness Among 540,667 Adults Hospitalized With COVID-19, March 2020-March 2021”. Stopping Persistent Sickness. Amenities for Sickness Administration and Prevention. 18: E66. doi:10.5888/pcd18.210123. PMC 8269743. PMID 34197283.
  37. ^ a b c d “Diabetes Programme”. World Properly being Group. Archived from the distinctive on 26 April 2014. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
  38. ^ “Diabetes – eye care: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia”. medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
  39. ^ Cukierman T, Gerstein HC, Williamson JD (December 2005). “Cognitive decline and dementia in diabetes–systematic overview of prospective observational studies”. Diabetologia. 48 (12): 2460–2469. doi:10.1007/s00125-005-0023-4. PMID 16283246.
  40. ^ Yang Y, Hu X, Zhang Q, Zou R (November 2016). “Diabetes mellitus and risk of falls in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis”. Age and Ageing. 45 (6): 761–767. doi:10.1093/ageing/afw140. PMID 27515679.
  41. ^ a b c Williams textbook of endocrinology (twelfth ed.). Elsevier/Saunders. 2011. pp. 1371–1435. ISBN 978-1-4377-0324-5.
  42. ^ Lambert P, Bingley PJ (2002). “What’s Form 1 Diabetes?”. Treatment. 30: 1–5. doi:10.1383/medc.30.1.1.28264.
  43. ^ Skov J, Eriksson D, Kuja-Halkola R, Höijer J, Gudbjörnsdottir S, Svensson AM, et al. (Would possibly 2020). “Co-aggregation and heritability of organ-specific autoimmunity: a population-based twin study”. European Journal of Endocrinology. 182 (5): 473–480. doi:10.1530/EJE-20-0049. PMC 7182094. PMID 32229696.
  44. ^ Hyttinen V, Kaprio J, Kinnunen L, Koskenvuo M, Tuomilehto J (April 2003). “Genetic obligation of type 1 diabetes and the onset age amongst 22,650 youthful Finnish twin pairs: a nationwide follow-up study”. Diabetes. 52 (4): 1052–1055. doi:10.2337/diabetes.52.4.1052. PMID 12663480.
  45. ^ Condon J, Shaw JE, Luciano M, Kyvik KO, Martin NG, Duffy DL (February 2008). “A study of diabetes mellitus within a large sample of Australian twins” (PDF). Twin Evaluation and Human Genetics. 11 (1): 28–40. doi:10.1375/twin.11.1.28. PMID 18251672. S2CID 18072879.
  46. ^ Willemsen G, Ward KJ, Bell CG, Christensen Okay, Bowden J, Dalgård C, et al. (December 2015). “The Concordance and Heritability of Form 2 Diabetes in 34,166 Twin Pairs From Worldwide Twin Registers: The Discordant Twin (DISCOTWIN) Consortium”. Twin Evaluation and Human Genetics. 18 (6): 762–771. doi:10.1017/thg.2015.83. PMID 26678054. S2CID 17854531.
  47. ^ Mobasseri M, Shirmohammadi M, Amiri T, Vahed N, Hosseini Fard H, Ghojazadeh M (2020-03-30). “Prevalence and incidence of type 1 diabetes in the world: a systematic review and meta-analysis”. Properly being Promotion Views. 10 (2): 98–115. doi:10.34172/hpp.2020.18. PMC 7146037. PMID 32296622.
  48. ^ Lin X, Xu Y, Pan X, Xu J, Ding Y, Photo voltaic X, et al. (September 2020). “Global, regional, and national burden and trend of diabetes in 195 countries and territories: an analysis from 1990 to 2025”. Scientific Tales. 10 (1): 14790. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1014790L. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-71908-9. PMC 7478957. PMID 32901098.
  49. ^ Tinajero MG, Malik VS (September 2021). “An Change on the Epidemiology of Form 2 Diabetes: A Worldwide Perspective”. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America. 50 (3): 337–355. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2021.05.013. PMID 34399949.
  50. ^ “Classification of Diabetes mellitus 2019”. WHO. Retrieved 2020-11-09.
  51. ^ Tuomi T, Santoro N, Caprio S, Cai M, Weng J, Groop L (March 2014). “The varied faces of diabetes: a sickness with rising heterogeneity”. Lancet. 383 (9922): 1084–1094. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62219-9. PMID 24315621. S2CID 12679248.
  52. ^ “Definition of Diabetes mellitus”. MedicineNet. Retrieved 2019-11-04.
  53. ^ Rother KI (April 2007). “Diabetes treatment–bridging the divide”. The New England Journal of Treatment. 356 (15): 1499–1501. doi:10.1056/NEJMp078030. PMC 4152979. PMID 17429082.
  54. ^ a b “Diabetes Mellitus (DM): Diabetes Mellitus and Disorders of Carbohydrate Metabolism: Merck Manual Professional”. Merck Publishing. April 2010. Archived from the distinctive on 2010-07-28. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
  55. ^ Dorner M, Pinget M, Brogard JM (Would possibly 1977). “[Essential labile diabetes (author’s transl)]”. MMW, Munchener Medizinische Wochenschrift (in German). 119 (19): 671–674. PMID 406527.
  56. ^ a b Petzold A, Solimena M, Knoch KP (October 2015). “Mechanisms of Beta Cell Dysfunction Associated With Viral Infection”. Current Diabetes Tales (Overview). 15 (10): 73. doi:10.1007/s11892-015-0654-x. PMC 4539350. PMID 26280364. To this point, not one of many hypotheses accounting for virus-induced beta cell autoimmunity has been supported by stringent proof in folks, and the involvement of numerous mechanisms pretty than just one will be plausible.
  57. ^ Butalia S, Kaplan GG, Khokhar B, Rabi DM (December 2016). “Environmental Hazard Parts and Form 1 Diabetes: Earlier, Present, and Future”. Canadian Journal of Diabetes (Overview). 40 (6): 586–593. doi:10.1016/j.jcjd.2016.05.002. PMID 27545597.
  58. ^ Serena G, Camhi S, Sturgeon C, Yan S, Fasano A (August 2015). “The Role of Gluten in Celiac Disease and Type 1 Diabetes”. Nutritional vitamins. 7 (9): 7143–7162. doi:10.3390/nu7095329. PMC 4586524. PMID 26343710.
  59. ^ Visser J, Rozing J, Sapone A, Lammers Okay, Fasano A (Would possibly 2009). “Tight junctions, intestinal permeability, and autoimmunity: celiac disease and type 1 diabetes paradigms”. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1165 (1): 195–205. Bibcode:2009NYASA1165..195V. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04037.x. PMC 2886850. PMID 19538307.
  60. ^ Laugesen E, Østergaard JA, Leslie RD (July 2015). “Latent autoimmune diabetes of the adult: current knowledge and uncertainty”. Diabetic Treatment. 32 (7): 843–852. doi:10.1111/dme.12700. PMC 4676295. PMID 25601320.
  61. ^ American Diabetes Affiliation (January 2017). “2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes”. Diabetes Care. 40 (Suppl 1): S11–S24. doi:10.2337/dc17-S005. PMID 27979889.
  62. ^ Carris NW, Magness RR, Labovitz AJ (February 2019). “Prevention of Diabetes Mellitus in Patients With Prediabetes”. The American Journal of Cardiology. 123 (3): 507–512. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2018.10.032. PMC 6350898. PMID 30528418.
  63. ^ a b Risérus U, Willett WC, Hu FB (January 2009). “Dietary fats and prevention of type 2 diabetes”. Progress in Lipid Evaluation. 48 (1): 44–51. doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2008.10.002. PMC 2654180. PMID 19032965.
  64. ^ Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, Després JP, Hu FB (March 2010). “Sugar-sweetened beverages, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease risk”. Circulation. 121 (11): 1356–1364. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.876185. PMC 2862465. PMID 20308626.
  65. ^ Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, Després JP, Willett WC, Hu FB (November 2010). “Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis”. Diabetes Care. 33 (11): 2477–2483. doi:10.2337/dc10-1079. PMC 2963518. PMID 20693348.
  66. ^ Hu EA, Pan A, Malik V, Photo voltaic Q (March 2012). “White rice consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis and systematic review”. BMJ. 344: e1454. doi:10.1136/bmj.e1454. PMC 3307808. PMID 22422870.
  67. ^ Lee IM, Shiroma EJ, Lobelo F, Puska P, Blair SN, Katzmarzyk PT (July 2012). “Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy”. Lancet. 380 (9838): 219–229. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61031-9. PMC 3645500. PMID 22818936.
  68. ^ Huang H, Yan P, Shan Z, Chen S, Li M, Luo C, et al. (November 2015). “Antagonistic childhood experiences and hazard of type 2 diabetes: A scientific analysis and meta-analysis”. Metabolism. 64 (11): 1408–1418. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2015.08.019. PMID 26404480.
  69. ^ Zhang Y, Liu Y, Su Y, You Y, Ma Y, Yang G, et al. (November 2017). “The metabolic side effects of 12 antipsychotic drugs used for the treatment of schizophrenia on glucose: a network meta-analysis”. BMC Psychiatry. 17 (1): 373. doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1539-0. PMC 5698995. PMID 29162032.
  70. ^ a b “National Diabetes Clearinghouse (NDIC): National Diabetes Statistics 2011”. U.S. Division of Properly being and Human Suppliers. Archived from the original on 17 April 2014. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
  71. ^ a b Soldavini J (November 2019). “Krause’s Meals & The Food regimen Care Course of”. Journal of Food regimen Education and Conduct. 51 (10): 1225. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2019.06.022. ISSN 1499-4046. S2CID 209272489.
  72. ^ “Managing & Treating Gestational Diabetes | NIDDK”. Nationwide Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Retrieved 2019-05-06.
  73. ^ Tarvonen M, Hovi P, Sainio S, Vuorela P, Andersson S, Teramo Okay (November 2021). “Intrapartal cardiotocographic patterns and hypoxia-related perinatal outcomes in pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes mellitus”. Acta Diabetologica. 58 (11): 1563–1573. doi:10.1007/s00592-021-01756-0. PMC 8505288. PMID 34151398. S2CID 235487220.
  74. ^ Nationwide Collaborating Centre for Women’s and Kids’s Properly being (February 2015). “Intrapartum care”. Diabetes in Being pregnant: Administration of diabetes and its issues from preconception to the postnatal interval. Nationwide Institute for Properly being and Care Excellence (UK).
  75. ^ “Monogenic Forms of Diabetes”. Nationwide institute of diabetes and digestive and kidney diseases. US NIH. Archived from the distinctive on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
  76. ^ Thanabalasingham G, Owen KR (October 2011). “Prognosis and administration of maturity onset diabetes of the youthful (MODY)”. BMJ. 343 (oct19 3): d6044. doi:10.1136/bmj.d6044. PMID 22012810. S2CID 44891167.
  77. ^ a b “Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and its Complications” (PDF). World Health Organization. 1999. Archived (PDF) from the distinctive on 2003-03-08.
  78. ^ Cleland SJ, Fisher BM, Colhoun HM, Sattar N, Petrie JR (July 2013). “Insulin resistance in type 1 diabetes: what is ‘double diabetes’ and what are the risks?”. Diabetologia. Nationwide Library of Treatment. 56 (7): 1462–1470. doi:10.1007/s00125-013-2904-2. PMC 3671104. PMID 23613085.
  79. ^ Till in some other case specified, reference is: Desk 20-5 in Mitchell, Richard Sheppard; Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul Okay.; Fausto, Nelson (2007). Robbins Main Pathology (eighth ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. ISBN 978-1-4160-2973-1.
  80. ^ Sattar N, Preiss D, Murray HM, Welsh P, Buckley BM, de Craen AJ, et al. (February 2010). “Statins and hazard of incident diabetes: a collaborative meta-analysis of randomised statin trials”. Lancet. 375 (9716): 735–742. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61965-6. PMID 20167359. S2CID 11544414.
  81. ^ “Insulin Basics”. American Diabetes Affiliation. Archived from the distinctive on 14 February 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  82. ^ a b c d Shoback DG, Gardner D, eds. (2011). Greenspan’s basic & scientific endocrinology (ninth ed.). McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 978-0-07-162243-1.
  83. ^ Barrett KE, et al. (2012). Ganong’s analysis of medical physiology (twenty fourth ed.). McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 978-0-07-178003-2.
  84. ^ Murray RK, et al. (2012). Harper’s illustrated biochemistry (twenty ninth ed.). McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 978-0-07-176576-3.
  85. ^ Mogotlane S (2013). Juta’s Full Textbook of Medical Surgical Nursing. Cape Metropolis: Juta. p. 839.
  86. ^ “Summary of revisions for the 2010 Clinical Practice Recommendations”. Diabetes Care. 33 (Suppl 1): S3. January 2010. doi:10.2337/dc10-S003. PMC 2797388. PMID 20042773. Archived from the distinctive on 13 January 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2010.
  87. ^ Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and intermediate hyperglycemia: Report of a WHO/IDF consultation (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2006. p. 21. ISBN 978-92-4-159493-6.
  88. ^ Vijan, S (March 2010). “Form 2 diabetes”. Annals of Internal Medicine. 152 (5): ITC31-15. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-152-5-201003020-01003. PMID 20194231.
  89. ^ Saydah SH, Miret M, Sung J, Varas C, Gause D, Brancati FL (August 2001). “Postchallenge hyperglycemia and mortality in a national sample of U.S. adults”. Diabetes Care. 24 (8): 1397–1402. doi:10.2337/diacare.24.8.1397. PMID 11473076.
  90. ^ Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and intermediate hyperglycemia : report of a WHO/IDF consultation (PDF). World Properly being Group. 2006. p. 21. ISBN 978-92-4-159493-6. Archived (PDF) from the distinctive on 11 Would possibly 2012.
  91. ^ Santaguida PL, Balion C, Hunt D, Morrison Okay, Gerstein H, Raina P, et al. (August 2005). “Diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose”. Proof Report/Know-how Analysis. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (128): 1–11. PMC 4780988. PMID 16194123. Archived from the distinctive on 16 September 2008. Retrieved 20 July 2008.
  92. ^ Bartoli E, Fra GP, Carnevale Schianca GP (February 2011). “The oral glucose tolerance check out (OGTT) revisited”. European Journal of Inside Treatment. 22 (1): 8–12. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2010.07.008. PMID 21238885.
  93. ^ Selvin E, Steffes MW, Zhu H, Matsushita Okay, Wagenknecht L, Pankow J, et al. (March 2010). “Glycated hemoglobin, diabetes, and cardiovascular risk in nondiabetic adults”. The New England Journal of Treatment. 362 (9): 800–811. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.589.1658. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0908359. PMC 2872990. PMID 20200384.
  94. ^ “Tackling risk factors for type 2 diabetes in adolescents: PRE-STARt study in Euskadi”. Anales de Pediatria (Barcelona, Spain : 2003). Anales de Pediatría. 95 (3): 186–196. 2020. doi:10.1016/j.anpedi.2020.11.001. PMID 33388268.
  95. ^ Kyu HH, Bachman VF, Alexander LT, Mumford JE, Afshin A, Estep Okay, et al. (August 2016). “Physical activity and risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and ischemic stroke events: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013”. BMJ. 354: i3857. doi:10.1136/bmj.i3857. PMC 4979358. PMID 27510511.
  96. ^ a b “Simple Steps to Preventing Diabetes”. The Food regimen Provide. Harvard T.H. Chan Faculty of Public Properly being. 18 September 2012. Archived from the distinctive on 25 April 2014.
  97. ^ Willi C, Bodenmann P, Ghali WA, Faris PD, Cornuz J (December 2007). “Vigorous smoking and the hazard of type 2 diabetes: a scientific analysis and meta-analysis”. JAMA. 298 (22): 2654–2664. doi:10.1001/jama.298.22.2654. PMID 18073361.
  98. ^ “Chronic diseases and their common risk factors” (PDF). World Properly being Group. 2005. Archived (PDF) from the distinctive on 2016-10-17. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
  99. ^ Toumpanakis A, Turnbull T, Alba-Barba I (2018-10-30). “Effectiveness of plant-based diets in promoting well-being in the management of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review”. BMJ Open Diabetes Evaluation & Care. 6 (1): e000534. doi:10.1136/bmjdrc-2018-000534. PMC 6235058. PMID 30487971.
  100. ^ Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY, Genuth SM, Lachin JM, Orchard TJ, et al. (December 2005). “Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes”. The New England Journal of Treatment. 353 (25): 2643–2653. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa052187. PMC 2637991. PMID 16371630.
  101. ^ “The influence of intensive diabetes treatment on the occasion and growth of neuropathy. The Diabetes Administration and Issues Trial Evaluation Group”. Annals of Inside Treatment. 122 (8): 561–568. April 1995. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-122-8-199504150-00001. PMID 7887548. S2CID 24754081.
  102. ^ Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, Kansagara D, Horwitch C, Barry MJ, Forciea MA, et al. (April 2018). “Hemoglobin A1c Targets for Glycemic Control With Pharmacologic Therapy for Nonpregnant Adults With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Guidance Statement Update From the American College of Physicians”. Annals of Inside Treatment. 168 (8): 569–576. doi:10.7326/M17-0939. PMID 29507945.
  103. ^ National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Clinical guideline 66: Type 2 diabetes. London, 2008.
  104. ^ Cavanagh PR (2004). “Therapeutic footwear for people with diabetes”. Diabetes/Metabolism Evaluation and Evaluations. 20 (Suppl 1): S51–S55. doi:10.1002/dmrr.435. PMID 15150815. S2CID 33268734.
  105. ^ McBain H, Mulligan Okay, Haddad M, Flood C, Jones J, Simpson A, et al. (Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Points Group) (April 2016). “Self administration interventions for type 2 diabetes in grownup people with excessive psychological illness”. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Evaluations. 4: CD011361. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011361.pub2. PMID 27120555.
  106. ^ Haw JS, Galaviz KI, Straus AN, Kowalski AJ, Magee MJ, Weber MB, et al. (December 2017). “Long-term Sustainability of Diabetes Prevention Approaches: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials”. JAMA Inside Treatment. 177 (12): 1808–1817. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.6040. PMC 5820728. PMID 29114778.
  107. ^ Mottalib A, Kasetty M, Mar JY, Elseaidy T, Ashrafzadeh S, Hamdy O (August 2017). “Weight Management in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes and Obesity”. Current Diabetes Tales. 17 (10): 92. doi:10.1007/s11892-017-0918-8. PMC 5569154. PMID 28836234.
  108. ^ a b American Diabetes Affiliation (January 2019). “5. Lifestyle Management: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2019“. Diabetes Care. 42 (Suppl 1): S46–S60. doi:10.2337/dc19-S005. PMID 30559231.
  109. ^ a b c Evert AB, Dennison M, Gardner CD, Garvey WT, Lau KH, MacLeod J, et al. (Would possibly 2019). “Nutrition Therapy for Adults With Diabetes or Prediabetes: A Consensus Report”. Diabetes Care (Expert society pointers). 42 (5): 731–754. doi:10.2337/dci19-0014. PMC 7011201. PMID 31000505.
  110. ^ a b Emadian A, Andrews RC, England CY, Wallace V, Thompson JL (November 2015). “The effect of macronutrients on glycaemic control: a systematic review of dietary randomised controlled trials in overweight and obese adults with type 2 diabetes in which there was no difference in weight loss between treatment groups”. The British Journal of Food regimen. 114 (10): 1656–1666. doi:10.1017/S0007114515003475. PMC 4657029. PMID 26411958.
  111. ^ Grams J, Garvey WT (June 2015). “Weight Loss and the Prevention and Treatment of Form 2 Diabetes Using Life-style Treatment, Pharmacotherapy, and Bariatric Surgical process: Mechanisms of Movement”. Current Weight issues Tales. 4 (2): 287–302. doi:10.1007/s13679-015-0155-x. PMID 26627223. S2CID 207474124.
  112. ^ Rosberger DF (December 2013). “Diabetic retinopathy: current concepts and rising treatment”. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America. 42 (4): 721–745. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2013.08.001. PMID 24286948.
  113. ^ MacIsaac RJ, Jerums G, Ekinci EI (March 2018). “Glycemic Administration as Essential Prevention for Diabetic Kidney Sickness”. Advances in Persistent Kidney Sickness. 25 (2): 141–148. doi:10.1053/j.ackd.2017.11.003. PMID 29580578.
  114. ^ Pozzilli P, Strollo R, Bonora E (March 2014). “One size does not fit all glycemic targets for type 2 diabetes”. Journal of Diabetes Investigation. 5 (2): 134–141. doi:10.1111/jdi.12206. PMC 4023573. PMID 24843750.
  115. ^ a b “Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management”. www.good.org.uk. Nationwide Institute for Properly being and Care Excellence. 26 August 2015. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  116. ^ a b “Type 2 diabetes in adults: management”. www.good.org.uk. Nationwide Institute for Properly being and Care Excellence. 2 December 2015. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  117. ^ a b Krentz AJ, Bailey CJ (2005). “Oral antidiabetic brokers: current operate in type 2 diabetes mellitus”. Medication. 65 (3): 385–411. doi:10.2165/00003495-200565030-00005. PMID 15669880. S2CID 29670619.
  118. ^ Consumer Reports; American College of Physicians (April 2012), “Choosing a type 2 diabetes drug – Why the best first choice is often the oldest drug” (PDF), Extreme Value Care, Consumer Reports, archived (PDF) from the distinctive on July 2, 2014, retrieved August 14, 2012
  119. ^ Mitchell S, Malanda B, Damasceno A, Eckel RH, Gaita D, Kotseva Okay, et al. (September 2019). “A Roadmap on the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease Among People Living With Diabetes”. Worldwide Coronary coronary heart. 14 (3): 215–240. doi:10.1016/j.gheart.2019.07.009. PMID 31451236.
  120. ^ Brunström M, Carlberg B (February 2016). “Effect of antihypertensive treatment at different blood pressure levels in patients with diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analyses”. BMJ. 352: i717. doi:10.1136/bmj.i717. PMC 4770818. PMID 26920333.
  121. ^ Brunström M, Carlberg B (September 2019). “Benefits and harms of lower blood pressure treatment targets: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised placebo-controlled trials”. BMJ Open. 9 (9): e026686. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026686. PMC 6773352. PMID 31575567.
  122. ^ a b c Fox CS, Golden SH, Anderson C, Bray GA, Burke LE, de Boer IH, et al. (September 2015). “Update on Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Light of Recent Evidence: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association”. Diabetes Care. 38 (9): 1777–1803. doi:10.2337/dci15-0012. PMC 4876675. PMID 26246459.
  123. ^ Cheng J, Zhang W, Zhang X, Han F, Li X, He X, et al. (Would possibly 2014). “Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers on all-cause mortality, cardiovascular deaths, and cardiovascular events in patients with diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis”. JAMA Inside Treatment. 174 (5): 773–785. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.348. PMID 24687000.
  124. ^ Zheng SL, Roddick AJ, Ayis S (September 2017). “Effects of aliskiren on mortality, cardiovascular outcomes and adverse events in patients with diabetes and cardiovascular disease or risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 13,395 patients”. Diabetes & Vascular Sickness Evaluation. 14 (5): 400–406. doi:10.1177/1479164117715854. PMC 5600262. PMID 28844155.
  125. ^ a b Catalá-López F, Macías Saint-Gerons D, González-Bermejo D, Rosano GM, Davis BR, Ridao M, et al. (March 2016). “Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes of Renin-Angiotensin System Blockade in Adult Patients with Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review with Network Meta-Analyses”. PLOS Treatment. 13 (3): e1001971. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001971. PMC 4783064. PMID 26954482.
  126. ^ Pignone M, Alberts MJ, Colwell JA, Cushman M, Inzucchi SE, Mukherjee D, et al. (June 2010). “Aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events in people with diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association, a scientific statement of the American Heart Association, and an expert consensus document of the American College of Cardiology Foundation”. Diabetes Care. 33 (6): 1395–1402. doi:10.2337/dc10-0555. PMC 2875463. PMID 20508233.
  127. ^ Frachetti KJ, Goldfine AB (April 2009). “Bariatric surgical process for diabetes administration”. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Weight issues. 16 (2): 119–124. doi:10.1097/MED.0b013e32832912e7. PMID 19276974. S2CID 31797748.
  128. ^ a b Schulman AP, del Genio F, Sinha N, Rubino F (September–October 2009). ““Metabolic” surgical process for treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus”. Endocrine Observe. 15 (6): 624–631. doi:10.4158/EP09170.RAR. PMID 19625245.
  129. ^ Colucci RA (January 2011). “Bariatric surgical process in victims with type 2 diabetes: a viable selection”. Postgraduate Treatment. 123 (1): 24–33. doi:10.3810/pgm.2011.01.2242. PMID 21293081. S2CID 207551737.
  130. ^ Dixon JB, le Roux CW, Rubino F, Zimmet P (June 2012). “Bariatric surgical process for type 2 diabetes”. Lancet. 379 (9833): 2300–2311. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60401-2. PMID 22683132. S2CID 5198462.
  131. ^ “Pancreas Transplantation”. American Diabetes Affiliation. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  132. ^ Polisena J, Tran Okay, Cimon Okay, Hutton B, McGill S, Palmer Okay (October 2009). “Home telehealth for diabetes administration: a scientific analysis and meta-analysis”. Diabetes, Weight issues & Metabolism. 11 (10): 913–930. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1326.2009.01057.x. PMID 19531058. S2CID 44260857.
  133. ^ a b Pal Okay, Eastwood SV, Michie S, Farmer AJ, Barnard ML, Peacock R, et al. (Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Points Group) (March 2013). “Computer-based diabetes self-management interventions for adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus”. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Evaluations (3): CD008776. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008776.pub2. PMC 6486319. PMID 23543567.
  134. ^ a b c d e Elflein J (Dec 10, 2019). Estimated number diabetics worldwide.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and 12 months (link)
  135. ^ Shi Y, Hu FB (June 2014). “The worldwide implications of diabetes and most cancers”. Lancet. 383 (9933): 1947–1948. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60886-2. PMID 24910221. S2CID 7496891.
  136. ^ a b c d e f “Global Report on Diabetes” (PDF). World Properly being Group. 2016. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  137. ^ Gale EA, Gillespie KM (January 2001). “Diabetes and gender”. Diabetologia. 44 (1): 3–15. doi:10.1007/s001250051573. PMID 11206408.
  138. ^ Meisinger C, Thorand B, Schneider A, Stieber J, Döring A, Löwel H (January 2002). “Sex differences in risk factors for incident type 2 diabetes mellitus: the MONICA Augsburg cohort study”. Archives of Inside Treatment. 162 (1): 82–89. doi:10.1001/archinte.162.1.82. PMID 11784224.
  139. ^ Public Properly being Firm of Canada, Diabetes in Canada: Particulars and figures from a public nicely being perspective. Ottawa, 2011.
  140. ^ Mathers CD, Loncar D (November 2006). “Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030”. PLOS Treatment. 3 (11): e442. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030442. PMC 1664601. PMID 17132052.
  141. ^ a b Wild S, Roglic G, Inexperienced A, Sicree R, King H (Would possibly 2004). “Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030”. Diabetes Care. 27 (5): 1047–1053. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.5.1047. PMID 15111519.
  142. ^ Ripoll BC, Leutholtz I (2011-04-25). Exercise and disease management (2nd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4398-2759-8. Archived from the distinctive on 2016-04-03.
  143. ^ a b c d e f g h Poretsky L, ed. (2009). Principles of diabetes mellitus (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-387-09840-1. Archived from the distinctive on 2016-04-04.
  144. ^ a b Roberts J (2015). “Sickening sweet”. Distillations. Vol. 1, no. 4. pp. 12–15. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
  145. ^ a b Laios Okay, Karamanou M, Saridaki Z, Androutsos G (2012). “Aretaeus of Cappadocia and the first description of diabetes” (PDF). Hormones. 11 (1): 109–113. doi:10.1007/BF03401545. PMID 22450352. S2CID 4730719. Archived (PDF) from the distinctive on 2017-01-04.
  146. ^ a b Oxford English Dictionary. diabetes. Retrieved 2011-06-10.
  147. ^ a b Harper D (2001–2010). “Online Etymology Dictionary. diabetes.“. Archived from the distinctive on 2012-01-13. Retrieved 2011-06-10.
  148. ^ Aretaeus, De causis et signis acutorum morborum (lib. 2), Κεφ. β. περὶ Διαβήτεω (Chapter 2, On Diabetes, Greek original) Archived 2014-07-02 on the Wayback Machine, on Perseus
  149. ^ a b c d Oxford English Dictionary. mellite. Retrieved 2011-06-10.
  150. ^ a b c d “MyEtimology. mellitus.“. Archived from the distinctive on 2011-03-16. Retrieved 2011-06-10.
  151. ^ Oxford English Dictionary. -ite. Retrieved 2011-06-10.
  152. ^ Tulchinsky TH, Varavikova EA (2008). The New Public Properly being, Second Model. New York: Academic Press. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-12-370890-8.
  153. ^ Piwernetz Okay, Home PD, Snorgaard O, Antsiferov M, Staehr-Johansen Okay, Krans M (Would possibly 1993). “Monitoring the targets of the St Vincent Declaration and the implementation of top quality administration in diabetes care: the DIABCARE initiative. The DIABCARE Monitoring Group of the St Vincent Declaration Steering Committee”. Diabetic Treatment. 10 (4): 371–377. doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.1993.tb00083.x. PMID 8508624. S2CID 9931183.
  154. ^ Dubois H, Bankauskaite V (2005). “Type 2 diabetes programmes in Europe” (PDF). Euro Observer. 7 (2): 5–6. Archived (PDF) from the distinctive on 2012-10-24.
  155. ^ Stewart WF, Ricci JA, Chee E, Hirsch AG, Brandenburg NA (June 2007). “Misplaced productive time and costs on account of diabetes and diabetic neuropathic ache throughout the US workforce”. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Treatment. 49 (6): 672–679. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e318065b83a. PMID 17563611. S2CID 21487348.
  156. ^ Washington R.E.; Andrews R.M.; Mutter R.L. (November 2013). “Emergency Department Visits for Adults with Diabetes, 2010”. HCUP Statistical Transient #167. Rockville MD: Firm for Healthcare Evaluation and Prime quality. Archived from the distinctive on 2013-12-03.
  157. ^ “Type 1 vs. Type 2 Diabetes Differences: Which One Is Worse?”. MedicineNet. Retrieved 2021-03-21.
  158. ^ Parker Okay (2008). Living with diabetes. New York: Particulars On File. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-4381-2108-6.
  159. ^ a b “Diabetes mellitus”. Merck Veterinary Handbook, ninth model (on-line mannequin). 2005. Archived from the distinctive on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  160. ^ Öhlund M. Feline diabetes mellitus Aspects on epidemiology and pathogenesis (PDF). Acta Universitatis agriculturae Sueciae. ISBN 978-91-7760-067-1.

Exterior hyperlinks[edit]

Leave a Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Close
SHOP NOW